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''A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibers (called axons) in the peripheral nervous system.
A nerve transmits electrical impulses. It is the basic unit of the peripheral nervous system. A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses called action potentials that are transmitted along each of the axons to peripheral organs or, in the case of sensory nerves, from the periphery back to the central nervous system. Each axon, within the nerve, is an extension of an individual neuron, along with other supportive cells such as some Schwann cells that coat the axons in myelin.
Within a nerve, each axon is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the endoneurium. The axons are bundled together into groups called fascicles, and each fascicle is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the perineurium. Finally, the entire nerve is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the epineurium. Nerve cells (often called neurons) are further classified as sensory, motor, or mixed nerves.
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''Thalassemias are inherited blood disorders characterized by decreased hemoglobin production.[7] Symptoms depend on the type and can vary from none to severe.[1] Often there is mild to severe anemia (low red blood cells or hemoglobin).[1] Anemia can result in feeling tired and pale skin.[1] There may also be bone problems, an enlarged spleen, yellowish skin, and dark urine.[1] Slow growth may occur in children.[1]
Thalassemias are genetic disorders inherited from a person's parents.[2] There are two main types, alpha thalassemia and beta thalassemia.[7] The severity of alpha and beta thalassemia depends on how many of the four genes for alpha globin or two genes for beta globin are missing.[2] Diagnosis is typically by blood tests including a complete blood count, special hemoglobin tests, and genetic tests.[3] Diagnosis may occur before birth through prenatal testing.[8]
Treatment depends on the type and severity.[4] Treatment for those with more severe disease often includes regular blood transfusions, iron chelation, and folic acid.[4] Iron chelation may be done with deferoxamine, deferasirox or deferiprone.[4][9] Occasionally, a bone marrow transplant may be an option.[4] Complications may include iron overload from the transfusions with resulting heart or liver disease, infections, and osteoporosis.[1] If the spleen becomes overly enlarged, surgical removal may be required.[1] Thalassemia patients who do not respond well to blood transfusions can take hydroxyurea or thalidomide, and sometimes a combination of both.[10] Hydroxyurea is the only FDA approved drug for thalassemia. Patients who took 10 mg/kg of hydroxyurea every day for a year had significantly higher hemoglobin levels, and it was a well-tolerated treatment for patients who did not respond well to blood transfusions.[11] Another hemoglobin-inducer includes thalidomide, although it has not been tested in a clinical setting. The combination of thalidomide and hydroxyurea resulted in hemoglobin levels increasing significantly in transfusion-dependent and non-transfusion dependent patients [12]
As of 2015, thalassemia occurs in about 280 million people, with about 439,000 having severe disease.[13] It is most common among people of Greek, Italian, Middle Eastern, South Asian, and African descent.[7] Males and females have similar rates of disease.[14] It resulted in 16,800 deaths in 2015, down from 36,000 deaths in 1990.[6][15] Those who have minor degrees of thalassemia, similar to those with sickle-cell trait, have some protection against malaria, explaining why they are more common in regions of the world where malaria exists''.[16]
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PAIN is a Great Symptom of Human Body-Mind-Spirituality based Irregular Feelings of Diseases +Disorders, like Cancers, Headache, Fevers. Infectious Diseases etc. to All kinds of Sufferings Congenitally/Acquired including All Living Objects Naturally Around. We never use SIDE EFFECTS and LIFE-THREATENING PAIN KILLERS MEDICINES but We can Treat & CURE All Sorts of Pain by Medicinal Miracles with NO SIDE EFFECTS against LIFE+++++. All of You Globally reside+++- undoubtedly Use our Discoveries for the same Safely according to our Prescription based Directions with Positive Results of Most Urgent Ideal A'1 Curative Triple Health Solution instead of Ongoing Present Day Other Known-Unknown Side Effects based Medicines and Therapies etc. Come & Share what can we do for the same to SAVE LIFE 500% SAFELY+++++ to REACH OF OUR DESTINATION OF HUMANSM+++++ for Conquering PEACE-TRUTH & REALITY of Universes among user friendly INTERACTIONS go ahead always.
''Pain is a distressing feeling often caused by intense or damaging stimuli. The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as "an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling that associated with, actual or potential tissue damage."[1] In medical diagnosis, pain is regarded as a symptom of an underlying condition.
Pain motivates the individual to withdraw from damaging situations, to protect a damaged body part while it heals, and to avoid similar experiences in the future.[2] Most pain resolves once the noxious stimulus is removed and the body has healed, but it may persist despite removal of the stimulus and apparent healing of the body. Sometimes pain arises in the absence of any detectable stimulus, damage or disease.[3]
Pain is the most common reason for physician consultation in most developed countries.[4][5] It is a major symptom in many medical conditions, and can interfere with a person's quality of life and general functioning.[6] Simple pain medications are useful in 20% to 70% of cases.[7] Psychological factors such as social support, cognitive behavioral therapy, excitement, or distraction can affect pain's intensity or unpleasantness.[8][9]
In some debates regarding physician-assisted suicide or euthanasia, pain has been used as an argument to permit people who are terminally ill to end their lives.[10]
The International Association for the Study of Pain defines chronic pain as pain with no biological value, that persists past normal tissue healing. The DSM-5 recognizes one chronic pain disorder, somatic symptom disorders. The criteria include pain lasting longer than six months.[15]
The International Classification of Disease, Eleventh Revision (ICD-11) suggests seven categories for chronic pain.[1]
- Chronic primary pain: defined by 3 months of persistent pain in one or more regions of the body that is unexplainable by another pain condition.
- Chronic cancer pain: defined as cancer or treatment related visceral (within the internal organs), musculoskeletal, or bony pain.
- Chronic post-traumatic pain: pain lasting 3 months after an injury or surgery, excluding infectious or pre-existing conditions.
- Chronic neuropathic pain: pain caused by damage to the somatosensory nervous system.
- Chronic headache and orofacial pain: pain that originates in the head or face, and occurs for 50% or more days over a 3 months period.
- Chronic visceral pain: pain originating in an internal organ.
- Chronic musculoskeletal pain: pain originating in the bones, muscles, joints or connective tissue.
Chronic pain may be divided into "nociceptive" (caused by inflamed or damaged tissue activating specialized pain sensors called nociceptors), and "neuropathic" (caused by damage to or malfunction of the nervous system).[16]
Nociceptive pain can be divided into "superficial" and "deep", and deep pain into "deep somatic" and "visceral". Superficial pain is initiated by activation of nociceptors in the skin or superficial tissues. Deep somatic pain is initiated by stimulation of nociceptors in ligaments, tendons, bones, blood vessels, fasciae and muscles, and is dull, aching, poorly-localized pain. Visceral pain originates in the viscera (organs). Visceral pain may be well-localized, but often it is extremely difficult to locate, and several visceral regions produce "referred" pain when damaged or inflamed, where the sensation is located in an area distant from the site of pathology or injury.[17]
Neuropathic pain[18] is divided into "peripheral" (originating in the peripheral nervous system) and "central" (originating in the brain or spinal cord).[19] Peripheral neuropathic pain is often described as "burning", "tingling", "electrical", "stabbing", or "pins and needles".[2
Under persistent activation, the transmission of pain signals to the dorsal horn may produce a pain wind-up phenomenon. This triggers changes that lower the threshold for pain signals to be transmitted. In addition, it may cause nonnociceptive nerve fibers to respond to, generate, and transmit pain signals. The type of nerve fibers that are believed to generate the pain signals are the C-fibers, since they have a slow conductivity and give rise to a painful sensation that persists over a long time.[21] In chronic pain, this process is difficult to reverse or stop once established.[22] In some cases, chronic pain can be caused by genetic factors which interfere with neuronal differentiation, leading to a permanently lowered threshold for pain.[23]
Chronic pain of different causes has been characterized as a disease that affects brain structure and function. MRI studies have shown abnormal anatomical[24] and functional connectivity, even during rest[25][26] involving areas related to the processing of pain. Also, persistent pain has been shown to cause grey matter loss, which is reversible once the pain has resolved.[27][28]
These structural changes can be explained by neuroplasticity. In the case of chronic pain, the somatotopic representation of the body is inappropriately reorganized following peripheral and central sensitization. This can cause allodynia or hyperalgesia. In individuals with chronic pain, EEGs showed altered brain activity, suggesting pain-induced neuroplastic changes. More specifically, the relative beta activity (compared to the rest of the brain) was increased, the relative alpha activity was decreased, and the theta activity was diminished.[29]
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Dysfunctional dopamine management in the brain could potentially act as a shared mechanism between chronic pain, insomnia and major depressive disorder.[30] Astrocytes, microglia, and satellite glial cells have also been found to be dysfunctional in chronic pain. Increased activity of microglia, alterations of microglial networks, and increased production of chemokines and cytokines by microglia might aggravate chronic pain. Astrocytes have been observed to lose their ability to regulate the excitability of neurons, increasing spontaneous neural activity in pain circuits.[31]
Pain management is a branch of medicine that uses an interdisciplinary approach. The combined knowledge of various medical professions and allied health professions is used to ease pain and improve the quality of life of those living with pain.[32] The typical pain management team includes medical practitioners (particularly anesthesiologists), rehabilitation psychologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, physician assistants, and nurse practitioners.[33] Acute pain usually resolves with the efforts of one practitioner; however, the management of chronic pain frequently requires the coordinated efforts of a treatment team.[34][35][36] Complete, longterm remission of many types of chronic pain is rare''.[37]
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''The spleen is an organ found in almost all vertebrates. Similar in structure to a large lymph node, it acts primarily as a blood filter. The word spleen comes from Ancient Greek σπλήν (splḗn).[1]
The spleen plays very important roles in regard to red blood cells (erythrocytes) and the immune system.[2] It removes old red blood cells and holds a reserve of blood, which can be valuable in case of hemorrhagic shock, and also recycles iron. As a part of the mononuclear phagocyte system, it metabolizes hemoglobin removed from senescent red blood cells. The globin portion of hemoglobin is degraded to its constitutive amino acids, and the heme portion is metabolized to bilirubin, which is removed in the liver.[3][4]
The spleen houses antibody-producing lymphocytes in its white pulp and monocytes which remove antibody-coated bacteria and antibody-coated blood cells by way of blood and lymph node circulation. These monocytes, upon moving to injured tissue (such as the heart after myocardial infarction), turn into dendritic cells and macrophages while promoting tissue healing.[5][6][7] The spleen is a center of activity of the mononuclear phagocyte system and is analogous to a large lymph node, as its absence causes a predisposition to certain infections.[8][4]
In humans, the spleen is purple in color and is in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen.[3][9]
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